The Fair Sentencing Act For Mandatory Minimum Sentences

#1 Three salient points from the films/lectures were assessments of change from the five stages of change model (Norcross, j. c., n.d.), the Fair Sentencing Act for mandatory minimum sentences (American Civil Liberties Union, 2010), and eliminating government involvement in regulation of drugs and alcohol substance, while allowing the various states to manage control (ABC News.com, 2007). The first salient point was based on Norcross (n.d.) explaining that finding out and recognizing where the consumer thinks he/she is within the process of change. Asking questions of intention, where do they see themselves, and drawing a working model to show them their actuate stage of change (Norcross, j. c., n.d.). The second salient point was based on the Fair Sentencing Act for mandatory minimum sentences. Over two decades ago people were given longer jail/prison sentences because the belief was that crack cocaine was more harmful to people and community than powder cocaine. These â€Å"disparity fell disproportionately† on minorities, especially black people. Furthermore, with the aid of â€Å"both Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama urging reform,† finally a new law that reduces mandatory minimums is active (American Civil Liberties Union, 2010, para 4). The third salient point is based on eliminating government involvement in substance issues at the state level. Ron Paul expressed that he would â€Å"Allow states to deal with such problems.† If states were to manage control over drugs andShow MoreRelatedThe Mandatory Minimum Sentencing Laws1613 Words   |  7 PagesCurrent mandatory minimum sentencing laws are in dire need of reform. A mandatory minimum sentence is a court decision where judicial discretion is limited by law. As a result, there are irrevocable prison terms of a specific length for people convicted of particular federal and state crimes. As of January 2014, more than 50 percent of inmates in federal prisons are serving time for drug offenses, and more than 60 percent of people incarcerated are racial and ethnic minorities. The use of safetyRead MoreMandatory Minimum Sentences For Nonviolent Drug Related Offences1031 Words   |  5 PagesMandatory minimum sentences are the backbone of a racially unjust, overpopulated, and overpriced criminal justice system. The Smarter Sentencing Act is a bill that aims to r educe the mandatory minimum sentences for nonviolent drug related offences. â€Å"The United States has five percent of the world’s population, and twenty five percent of the world’s prisoners. Our prison population has grown eight hundred percent in the last thirty years, mostly because of changes in state and federal sentencingRead MoreMandatory Minimums712 Words   |  3 Pages Summary: This bill would remove mandatory minimums enacted under the Controlled Substances Act and the Controlled Substances Import and Export Act invoked by convictions of importing, exporting, manufacturing, distributing, or possessing â€Å"with an intent to distribute† a legally-controlled substance. It repeals several mandatory minimums associated with possession, selling controlled substances in a school zone, employing youth under age 18 to distribute drugs, and the adult sale of controlled substancesRead MoreThe Mandatory Minimum Sentencing Laws1347 Words   |  6 PagesThe establishment of mandatory minimum sentencing laws has been a policy blunder since their proliferation in the 1980s. Mandatory minimum laws are negatively affecting the U.S, economically and socially. These laws effectively strip judges of their ability to adjudicate a fair punishment by setting a minimum sentence and handing their discretion over to prosecutors. A number of individuals and their f amilies have been negatively affected by mandatory minimum penalties, however, there are othersRead MoreClassical Perspective And Mandatory Sentencing Act837 Words   |  4 PagesClassical Perspective and Mandatory Sentencing Act The classical perspective founded by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham; stated that at people choose to commit crime after they considered the pros and cons that could be associated with a crime, and believed that the pros outweighed the cons (Tonry,2014). The theory relied on deterring criminal acts by assuring that the consequences of crime are absolute, harsh, and quickly administered (Tonry,2014). Mandatory Sentencing Act Today, more than 2 millionRead MoreThe Mandatory Minimum Sentencing Laws1528 Words   |  7 Pagescould vary. To have unvaried penalties, mandatory minimum sentencing laws were enacted. These laws help keep citizens protected, while criminals are incarcerated. John Oliver, the host of Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, talks about how mandatory minimum sentencing increases the number of criminals incarcerated, and he believes the length of their prison time is longer than it should be. He shows videos of criminals who were convicted under the mandatory minimum law with drug crimes. These videos explainRead MoreWelfare Against Mandatory Minimum Law1143 Words   |  5 Pages Families Against Mandatory Minimum also known as FAMM advocate for smart sentencing such as individualized and fair criminal sentencing that protect the public. FAMM is nonprofit supported by attorneys, judges, criminal justice experts and concerned citizens. Their objectives include: uncrowding jails, which use citizens tax money, shift resources from uncrowded jails due to excessive incarceration to other departments such as law enforcement and additional programs whose aims include reducing crimeRead MoreMandatory Minimum Sentences And Sentencing Guidelines899 Words   |  4 Pagesfines, jail time and the overall outcome of a case. This paper will discuss mandatory minimum sentences and sentencing guidelines. Sentencing guidelines are just that, guidelines to follow we a sentencing of an individual is taking place. â€Å"At the national level this effort led to the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, which established a set of guidelines to structure the sentencing process: The guidelines contain a Sentencing Table with 43 offense levels on the vertical axis and six categories of criminalRead MoreThe Effects Of Mandatory Sentencing On The United States Essay1273 Words   |  6 Pagesuse of imprisonment for social control. These policy changes were enacted in order to achieve greater consistency, certainty, and severity and include sentencing laws such as determinate sentencing, truth-in-sentencing, mandatory minimum sentencing, and three strikes laws (National Research Council 2014). Furthermore, I argue that mandatory sentencing has had the most significant effect on the incarceration rate. The political turmoil and changing social climate of the 1960s contributed to the policiesRead MoreRape And Burglary As A Post Incarceration Supervision1730 Words   |  7 Pagesof imposing a life sentence without parole (Sutton, 2013). Mandatory minimums take away the discretion of the judge in sentencing. These officials are bound by statute to place offenders behind bars. Because these statutes are put into place, the judge is not allowed to hand down alternative punishments, nor do they give them the opportunity to prescribe treatment or a change to rehabilitate. Such laws also hold racial discriminatory factors (USSC, 2011). Determinate sentences are those in which

The United States and Latin America Essay - 2618 Words

American attitudes towards Latin America can be summed up as an extension of larger global directives, and the exclusion of foreign powers in the region. This was highlighted especially during the Cold War as US involvement was essentially in competition with the USSR. Latin America was therefore a mere pawn in the larger context of US-Soviet competition for global dominance. The actions and methods used are also characterized by the lack of an international authority, or an atmosphere of inter-state anarchy, which shaped their calculations in the endeavor to increase their influence over Latin America. When one analyzes the situation, it seems only rational that the United States treated its southern neighbors so, due to the geographical†¦show more content†¦While the Cold War does not mark a significant distinction from US involvement in Latin America pre-Cold War, the inclusion of ideology in US foreign policy decisions did mark a change in attitudes and focus. While US p olicy can be described as rational to a certain point, the Cuban dilemma caused an irrational fear in US foreign policy makers to avoid a second-Cuba. The fear of a â€Å"second Cuba† can be seen in the various interventions by the US in Latin America during this period. The motivation behind US endeavors during the Cold War was to interfere with Latin American countries politically to counter the spread of communist ideologies that were seen by the US as being directly opposed to its economic and philosophical interests. The US’ economic interests were spread and consolidated through corporations operating within Latin America such as Alcoa, United Fruit, and others. It is through these corporate interests, which were under threat of nationalizion in their respective countries by leftist governments taking hold, that the US justified much of its involvement toppling governments in the region. US foreign policy in Latin America is greatly influenced by its interactions with Cuba during the late fifties. With the efforts of Fidel and Raul Castro, and other Marxist revolutionaries such as Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos, the corrupt and tyrannical caudilloShow MoreRelatedThe United States And Latin America1362 Words   |  6 PagesWhen looking at the history between the United States and Latin America, you see many interactions between them, all that aided the relationship that they have today. Despite that the United States and Latin America are in the same part of the world, the beliefs in which they govern may differ. This difference has often been seen playing a major role in the disputes that have occurred in past. The United States and Latin America have faced many social, economical and governing barriers in formingRead MoreLatino And Hispanic : The United States And Latin America1267 Words   |  6 Pageson behalf of Latino and Latina youth in the U.S. justice system, focuses on the Latinos community residing in the United States and La tin America. Primarily, the research focuses on Latino/a youths in the criminal justice system. Furthermore, the research report discusses Latino communities are getting differential treatment than other racial and ethnic communities from the United States criminal justice system. The research report has many case studies and story of incidences of Latino/a youths facingRead More Nationalism and United States Policy in Latin America Essay6054 Words   |  25 Pagesand throughout Latin America, is the desire to regain control over economic and cultural resources tinged with antipathy towards the United States. The question arises, how does the United States react to nationalism, which manifests as anti-Americanism? This essay analyzes how and why the United States averted the repercussions of Mexican nationalism through diplomatic pressure and negotiation. The essay later compares the United States’ experience with Mexico to the United States’ general attitudeRead M oreWhat Does Mestizaje Play? Latin America And The United States? Essay1704 Words   |  7 Pagestaken place, and what is its importance in Latin America and in the United States. To fully understand the term, one must first pay attention to three central ideas. To start off you must first simply define the word mestizaje, and understand how mestizaje plays a role in Latin American societies by blending and dividing cultures. By defining this principal one may then illustrate how these cultural differences translate to racial differences in the United States. Furthermore, I will be able to explicateRead MoreAnnotated Bibliography On Global Mobility Of Latin America And The United States1316 Words   |  6 PagesA Guide to Global Mobility in Latin America and the United States Introduction For multinational organizations the global movement of employees is essential, but companies today are faced with a maze of legal issues to consider. The following article provides a regional overview of current trends, key government agencies, and visas for business travel, training and employment assignments for the United States and certain countries in Latin America, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, ColombiaRead MoreThe Policies Of The United States During The Period912 Words   |  4 PagesThe policies of the United States during the period 1898-1936 regarding latin america can be broadly covered in phases; the first phase: Big Stick Diplomacy 1898- 1909, the second phase known as Dollar Diplomacy from 1909- 1913, the third phase called missionary diplomacy from 1913- 1921 and finally the fourth phase known and the good neighbor policy 1933- 1936. These four policies had a great impact on not only the landscape of latin america but on the future of the United States in the region. StartingRead MoreEssay The Good Neighbor Policy1074 Words   |  5 Pagesnon-intervention between the United States and Latin America. This was the United States’ attempt to regain trust and economic relations with Latin America. The Good Neighbor Policy had good intentions of no longer intervening with Latin American policies and governments. During the 1930’s, the Great Depression effected the U.S. and Latin American nations. After the stock market crash the U.S. went through an economic depression which would in turn affect Latin America. President Franklin D. RooseveltRead MoreUS Foreign Policy During the 20th Century797 Words   |  4 PagesOver the course of the history of the United States, specific foreign policies have affected the methods in which the U.S. involves itself around the globe. Specifically, certain policies have affected U.S. involvement in Latin America. It is the intention of this essay to explain the United States foreign policy behind specific doctrines. In order to realize current objectives, this paper will proceed as follows: Part 1 will define the Monroe Doctrine, Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5 will concurrentlyRead More Training Ground For Murderers Essay1749 Words   |  7 PagesTraining Ground For Murderers Continued U.S. support for the School of the Americas, an institution that has trained dictators and political assassins, is completely unjustifiable. At seven o’ clock in the morning on December 11, 1981 an evil force entered the small El Salvadorian village of El Mezote (School of Assasins). With painted faces and army fatigues, the guerillas carried machine guns and automatic rifles into the peaceful village. As survivor Rufina Amaya recounts, â€Å"At ten o’clockRead More US-Latin America Essay1400 Words   |  6 PagesDuring the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the United States was the most dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. European nations conceded to the United States their right of any intervention in the Western Hemisphere and allowed the United States to do whatever they wanted. The United States took this newly bestowed power and abused it. The United States intervened in many Latin American countries and imposed their policies on to these countries against their will. A perfect example

Production and Operations Management Essay Example For Students

Production and Operations Management Essay BUS 508: Business Enterprise11th August 20112Analyze Marathon?s product process and determine which phase is open to the greatest number of efficiency improvements. Explain your rationale. Marathon is among the top five crude oil refineries in the United States. It?s an integrated international energy company engaged in exploration and production of oil, sand mining, integrated gas, refining, marketing, and transportation operation. Marathon needs to upgrade a few of their refineries and pipelines in order to increase the production process of heavy crude oils, (marathon.com). For example, once the Detroit Heavy Oil Upgrade Project is completed, the refinery crude capacity will increase from 106,000 bpd to 115,000 bpd. The upgrades will allow the Detroit refinery to process an additional 80,000 barrels of heavy crude oil per day (detriothoup.com). The existing pipelines at the Detroit refinery do not have the capacity to transport additional volumes of crude oil to meet the refinery?s upgrade needs. Therefore a 1.5-mile pipeline will provide an alternative oil supply line to the refinery and provide extra security in the event of a supply disruption. Pipelines are the safest and the most efficient way to transport crude oil and other liquid petroleum products. They reduce traffic and pollution as well as provide economic benefits. Pipelines transport two-thirds of all the crude oil and refined products in the U.S. compared to three percent by tanker trucks. According to detriothoup.com, currently 100,000 barrels of crude per day are transport to the refinery. Transporting the same volume of oil by tanker truck would require between 400 to 500 shipments per refinery day which would be a logistical nightmare and is not cost efficient for any company. Marathon Oil Corporation is a global corporation that is among the world?s leading energy companies. The company?s strategies lie in ?applying innovative technologies to discover and develop valuable energy resources, providing high-quality products to the marketplace and delivering value to all of the 3Companys stakeholders? (Marathon, 2008). Marathon produced a video entitled The Time it Takes to Pro vide America?s Transportation Fuels. The video, set in six phases, explains the process of gasoline production from its inception as crude oil to its processed products as gasoline and other petroleum products. A subsection of Phase one explains the world?s demand for oil and its projected growth. According to the video, it has been estimated that ?world oil demand will grow from 84 million barrels a day in 2009 to approximately 99 million barrels per day in 2030? (Marathon Petroleum Company, 2011, Phase one, World/U.S. Demand); and that the increase would ?require daily crude oil production of fifteen million barrels more than the current production? (Marathon Petroleum Company, 2011, Phase one, World Production). If this projection is correct, the U.S. must develop ways to increase crude oil production since ?less than 40% of the crude oil used in the United States refineries was produced in the U.S.? (Marathon Petroleum Company, 2011, Phase one, Marathon Crude Oil Supply). Discus s the relationship between the retail price of gasoline and the world demand for crude oil. The United States is a big retail gasoline market. There are more than 150,000 retail stations across the country; most locally owned and operated. Every day, tens of millions of Americans stop at a retail gasoline station, regardless of the daily increased gas prices. Whether it is cold, hot, rainy or windy; a retail customer has to fuel his/her vehicle. Because gasolines, as well as crude oil, are commodities that are traded worldwide, the price is determined by supply and demand. ?If the wholesale price of gasoline goes up, retailers have to pay more when they buy their next load. They raise their price to cover the increased cost of the new load? (Marathon 4Petroleum Company, LLC, 2011). The gas prices fluctuate, depending on how high or low the demands for these commodities are. The cost of a gallon of gasoline is determined by production and operational management, federal and state tax es, refining and distribution cost, marketing, retail and profits. Gasoline prices fluctuate in local markets due to competitiveness, world events and disruption in the refinery process. The crude oil market and gasoline market are entangled. However, there are some instances when changes in their perspective markets are not comparable. The escalation of gasoline prices worldwide is under scrutiny because the cost of gasoline significantly impacts the budgets of consumers. The relationship between crude oil prices and gasoline cost at the pump appear broken. Retail prices for gasoline rise more quickly than crude oil and decrease much slower than crude oil. There have been instances when the price of crude oil held steady and at the same time the price of gasoline increase progressively. The increase in gasoline prices sometimes can be attributed to a slowdown in processing thus creating reductions of supply. World situations can disrupt the supply and demand which could affect the price of crude oil. Some crude oil price increases are temporary, while others reflect longer-lasting market changes. These future contracts are agreements that allow the investors to buy or sell oil in the future and for a specified price. ?Crude oil accounts for 55% of the price of gasoline, while distribution and taxes influence the remaining 45%. Usually, distribution and taxes are stable, so that the daily change in the price of gasoline accurately reflects oil price fluctuations. Occasionally, however, distribution lines are disrupted or are down for maintenance, which can sometimes make high gas prices even when oil prices are down? (Amadeo, 2011). The United States imports more than forty-two million gallons of gasoline everyday and U.S. demand increases at an average rate of 0.5 to 1% per year. At the same rate, 5worldwide demand increases as well. ?The only real way to lower gas prices is to lower demand for gas and oil over a long period of time since the U.S. consumes 25 % of the worlds oil. This has increased over the last twenty years, from 15 million barrels per day to 20.7 million barrels per day. A concerted effort might convince commodities traders, who have driven oil prices up 25% in the first quarter of 2008, that oil was a bad investment, thus allowing oil prices to return to pre-bubble levels? (Amadeo, 2011 ). Explain what marathon could do to keep the price at the pump the same without losing profits if the prices of crude decreased by 10%. .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a , .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .postImageUrl , .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a , .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:hover , .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:visited , .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:active { border:0!important; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:active , .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud41a00617ff5543c194b16401634942a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Starbucks Downsizing and Global Growth Strategy Essay It is possible for Marathon to maintain a steady price at the pumps and not lose profit. The key lies in Marathon?s development and use of integrated gas. According to the company?s corporate profile, ?Marathons integrated gas business adds value through the development of opportunities created by demand for natural gas. This business complements the Companys exploration and production operations and opens a wide array of investment opportunities designed to add sustainable value growth? (Marathon, 2008 ). There are many options that Marathon can take to keep prices at the pump the same without losing profits. By ordering material in bulk, the company could competitively price their products to their consumers. However, the company must be careful and balance the amount of material that they purchase; ordering excess material can tie up funds unnecessarily and cause the company to lose income in the future. On the other hand, when you have the needed material on hand you will keep th e loyalty of current customers, possibly gain new ones, and maintain brand recognition that they are known for. Also, Marathon might try reducing labor/man power time (work smarter 6notharder). Cooperate offices should keep detailed accounts of time and how it is being used to see where they will be able to reduce time. They may want to take a look at their cost and see where things can be adjusted or reduced. Look at the employees and their job description. It is possible that they could hire an independent contractor to accomplish this task at a lower price, without the expense of paying for the insurance or additional taxes. In June 2010, President Obama imposed a six month deep water drilling moratorium. Determine the impact of a continued moratorium on deep-water for retail gas prices in the U.S. President Barack Obama suspended deep water drilling in response to the recent disastrous oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. This moratorium allowed the administration of President Obama to properly investigate the spill and implement new safety requirements. Therefore, the United States oil companies would employ different strategies to remain competitive. United States oil companies will probably deploy their resources to foreign suppliers with whom they have joint venture arrangements for projects. Next, United States oil companies may establish oil industry mergers, alliances, and acquisitions in order to cut costs, especially amongst the smaller companies. Also, United States oil companies may invest in renewable resources and explore alternative fuels. Americans use between 20 and 21 million barrels of oil per day. That translates into 10,000 gallons per second. Currently, domestic production is about seven million barrels per day; roughly one-third of the consummation. About thi rteen to fourteen millions are imported every day (Hofmeister, 2010). If the six month deep-water drilling moratorium were to extend, it would place a larger demand for imported oil, thus 7allowing the retail gas prices to gradually increase. If the industry were permitted to drill both offshore and on federal lands however, this could significantly increase our domestic production. Deep-water drilling has been prohibited in over eighty-five percent of the United States outer continental shelf for the past thirty years by both presidential and congressional moratoria, and drilling on federal lands has been prohibited by federal regulation (Hofmeister, 2010). 8ReferencesDetroit Heavy Oil Upgrade Project. (2010). Retrieved August 9, 2011 from: http:/ www.detrioth oup.comMarathon Oil Corporation. (2010). Annual report. Retrieved August 9, 2011 from: http://www. marathonoil.com/Amadeo, K. (2011). Why gas prices are high. Retrieved August 9, 2011 from: http://useconomy. about.com/od/commoditiesmarketfaq/p/high_gas_prices.htmHofmeister, J. (2010). Why we hate the oil companies. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Marathon Petroleum Company. (2011). The Time It Takes to Provide America?s Transportation Fuels. Available from: http://www.marathonpetroleum.com/content/includes/mpc/info_re sources/the_time_it_takes/index.htm

Male and Female Spatial Ability Essay Example

Male and Female Spatial Ability Essay One theory developed by psychologists working within the biological approach is the idea that males have better spatial ability than females. Spatial ability is the ability to mentally manipulate 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional figures. One way in which spatial ability can be operationalised is in the form of mental rotation test. A mental rotation test requires participants to identify rotated versions of a target stimulus. Mental rotation usually takes place in the right cerebral hemisphere, in the areas where perception also occurs. Mental rotation can be separated into the following cognitive stages (Johnson 1990): 1) Create a mental image of an object 2) Rotate the object mentally until a comparison can be made 3) Make the comparison 4) Decide if the objects are the same or not 5) Report the decision. See below for an example. Shepard and Metzler (1971) have identified sex differences in performance on mental rotation tasks. Males perform better than females (faster and making less mistakes). For this piece of research a quasi experiment is conducted because the variable that makes one group different from the other is gender i. . one condition will be male and the other condition will be female. Since gender is something that cannot be altered, the groups are pre-determined by their biological sex, therefore making it a naturally occurring variable. Any experiment that involves the investigation of a variable like the effect of gender on behaviour is called a quasi experiment because the conditions to which p articipants are assigned is based on a natural phenomenon. In a quasi experiment the independent variable is decided by something beyond the experimenter’s control. We will write a custom essay sample on Male and Female Spatial Ability specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Male and Female Spatial Ability specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Male and Female Spatial Ability specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The aim of this study is to conduct a partial replication of Shepard and Metzler (1971)) research in order to investigate whether sex differences exist between males and females for spatial ability. The research question is: ‘Do males have better spatial ability than females? ’ Based on previous research the experimental one-tailed hypothesis is: ‘Males complete mental rotation tasks more quickly than females’. A one-tailed hypothesis of difference is predicted because of previous findings. The Null Hypothesis is: ‘There will be no difference between the performance of males and females on a mental rotation task’. Operationalising the variables The independent variable is naturally occurring and is simply whether the participants is male or female. Spatial ability, the dependent variable, will be operationalised using a simple mental rotation task. Participants will be required to mentally rotate pictures of objects in order to match each picture with one of six other pictures that show objects mentally rotated in a different position. Participants (10 males and 10 females) will be required to choose the correct match from a selection of six different possibilities. There will be ten separate trials. The ten trails of each participant will be timed, in seconds, and an average time calculated for the completion of each trial. See figure 2 before for an example. Participants: 20 participants took part in the study. They were recruited using an opportunity sample. This method of sampling simply involves asking people to take part who are easily available at the time of study. In this case it was a collection of year 12 and 13 psychology students from three different classes. 10 females and 10 males took part ranging in age from 16-18 year. To follow ethical guidelines full informed consent was obtained from each participant. This detailed the purpose of the study and explained that all results would be kept entirely confidential and participants could withdraw from the study at any point. Participants could withhold their results from the mental rotation task if they wished. Controls Because the study is a laboratory experiment, controls can be put in place to prevent confounding variables affecting the results. It is therefore possible to be more confident that any difference between the results of the males and females is only due to their gender. Controls in this experiment included ensuring that all participants undertook the task in silence. All participants took the test in the same school computer lab and at the same time of day (Between 1:00 and 2:00pm). All participants were of a similar age and all participants did exactly the same task. Participants were seated a desk apart so they could not copy each others answers. Design As there are two groups of different participants, one male and one female, to compare times between groups the research design is an independent groups – each participants is only in one group (condition). Procedure A pilot study was conducted with 5 students not taking part in the study. This enabled the researchers to check the timings involved in administering the mental rotation test and also to check that everything ran smoothly. The study also enabled the researchers to perfect the wording of the standardised instructions. For the main study 10 male participants sat at separate desks in the computer room with the mental rotation programme loaded. Participants read and signed a consent form. The experimenter then read from a standardised set of instructions explaining the procedure and giving permission for participants to begin the 10 mental rotation trails when they were ready. Sitting next to each participant was a research assistant on hand to time the task. In their own time participants began the task – matching a 2D object with one of six other mentally rotated objects. This was completed in silence. After all participants had taken part a full debrief was read out to all participants, explaining the details of the research. All participants were told they could review the findings when the data had been analysed. Results The mean score (measured in seconds) for each participant can be seen below. The mean is one measure of central tendency. If a sensitive value because all scores are taken into however this may cause the value to be skewed if there are outlying values. The mean time to complete each mental rotation trial for males was 5. 84 seconds compared to 7. 73 seconds for females. This means that males completed each on average 1. 89 seconds faster than their female counterparts. This data is represented in a visual form in the graph below which shows an observable difference between males and females. Inferential statistics To test whether there is a significant difference between the sets of scores an inferential statistical test needs to be undertaken. This tests the probability of whether the difference between males and females is due to chance or whether the difference is due to the independent variable. An inferential statistical test is used to test the significance of the results, which will indicate whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. Inferential statistics will indicate the probability that the results are due to chance. If the probability of the results being due to chance is high you cannot reject the null hypothesis and must assume that there is no difference between the spatial ability of males and females. However if the probability that the results are due to chance is very low (say 5% or P lt; 0. 05) you can reject the null hypothesis and therefore accept the experimental hypothesis and thus assume that there is a real significant difference between the spatial abilities of males and females. When doing an inferential statistical test on the data one must select the appropriate test. To do this you must look at: 1) the type of data collected (level of measurement), 2) the research design of the experiment and 3) whether the research is looking for a difference or a relationship (correlation) between sets of data. For this experiment the correct test to use is a Mann-Whitney test because 1) the data gathered is ratio data, 2) the research design is independent groups and 3) we’re looking for a difference between sets of scores for two different groups of participants. The results of our Mann Whitney Test produced a U value of 19. 5. Because this is less than the critical value (23) from the statistical table the results are significant. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the experimental hypothesis is accepted. This means that we have found support for the idea that males do have better spatial ability than females, but it does not prove it. The results are due to a real effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Conclusion One can conclude from the above research that males perform mental rotation tasks more quickly than females. The experimental hypothesis is accepted ‘Males complete mental rotation tasks more quickly than females’. However this conclusion should be considered in light of the issues described below. Issue of Validity The mental rotation is not really a true reflection of how we normally use spatial information in everyday life e. g. when driving, writing and many other everyday activities. As such this experiment may be considered to be low in ecological validity. The test is not a particularly realistic test of spatial ability as the mental rotation task is only looking at one very specific type of spatial ability. Validity may also be questioned because of the controlled, artificial setting used. Participants knew that their performance was being monitored and this may have influenced their behaviour. Males are possibly more competitive when they know they are being watched which may explain why males performed better than females. (There may be more of a social facilitation effect for males compared to females). Other threats to validity may come from demand characteristics i. e. males may respond more to demand characteristics that females or males may respond more to experimenter effects than females. All these alternative explanations as to why males may perform better than females threaten the validity of the study. Reliability Each person who took part in the study had their spatial ability measured using the same test scored in exactly the same way, so the internal reliability (consistency) is good. The findings are externally reliable in the sense that they produced a consistent finding to that of previous research. The fact that the study can be easily replicated, partly because it is a laboratory study, means that the reliability can be tested. Generalisability Only having 10 participants in each group all of whom are between 16 and 18 years of age and from Enfield, is not a broad enough sample to make generalisation about populations beyond the sixth form where the study took place. A larger more representative sample is needed to be able to make more confident generalisations to a wider population. Since all students are studying A-levels they do not represent the academic abilities of all students and hence the sample is not fully representative. Credibility The overall credibility of the experiment may be questioned as the research took place in an artificial setting and the results could have been the result of where and how the experiment was conducted rather than the result of the difference between males and females in terms of spatial ability. Because the experiment may have validity issues plus problems with generalisation caused by the limited and unrepresentative sample many psychologists would argue that the results lack credibility. More evidence may therefore be needed to support the hypothesis that males have better spatial ability than females. Male and Female Spatial Ability Essay Example Male and Female Spatial Ability Essay One theory developed by psychologists working within the biological approach is the idea that males have better spatial ability than females. Spatial ability is the ability to mentally manipulate 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional figures. One way in which spatial ability can be operationalised is in the form of mental rotation test. A mental rotation test requires participants to identify rotated versions of a target stimulus. Mental rotation usually takes place in the right cerebral hemisphere, in the areas where perception also occurs. Mental rotation can be separated into the following cognitive stages (Johnson 1990): 1) Create a mental image of an object 2) Rotate the object mentally until a comparison can be made 3) Make the comparison 4) Decide if the objects are the same or not 5) Report the decision. See below for an example. Shepard and Metzler (1971) have identified sex differences in performance on mental rotation tasks. Males perform better than females (faster and making less mistakes). For this piece of research a quasi experiment is conducted because the variable that makes one group different from the other is gender i. . one condition will be male and the other condition will be female. Since gender is something that cannot be altered, the groups are pre-determined by their biological sex, therefore making it a naturally occurring variable. Any experiment that involves the investigation of a variable like the effect of gender on behaviour is called a quasi experiment because the conditions to which p articipants are assigned is based on a natural phenomenon. In a quasi experiment the independent variable is decided by something beyond the experimenter’s control. We will write a custom essay sample on Male and Female Spatial Ability specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Male and Female Spatial Ability specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Male and Female Spatial Ability specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The aim of this study is to conduct a partial replication of Shepard and Metzler (1971)) research in order to investigate whether sex differences exist between males and females for spatial ability. The research question is: ‘Do males have better spatial ability than females? ’ Based on previous research the experimental one-tailed hypothesis is: ‘Males complete mental rotation tasks more quickly than females’. A one-tailed hypothesis of difference is predicted because of previous findings. The Null Hypothesis is: ‘There will be no difference between the performance of males and females on a mental rotation task’. Operationalising the variables The independent variable is naturally occurring and is simply whether the participants is male or female. Spatial ability, the dependent variable, will be operationalised using a simple mental rotation task. Participants will be required to mentally rotate pictures of objects in order to match each picture with one of six other pictures that show objects mentally rotated in a different position. Participants (10 males and 10 females) will be required to choose the correct match from a selection of six different possibilities. There will be ten separate trials. The ten trails of each participant will be timed, in seconds, and an average time calculated for the completion of each trial. See figure 2 before for an example. Participants: 20 participants took part in the study. They were recruited using an opportunity sample. This method of sampling simply involves asking people to take part who are easily available at the time of study. In this case it was a collection of year 12 and 13 psychology students from three different classes. 10 females and 10 males took part ranging in age from 16-18 year. To follow ethical guidelines full informed consent was obtained from each participant. This detailed the purpose of the study and explained that all results would be kept entirely confidential and participants could withdraw from the study at any point. Participants could withhold their results from the mental rotation task if they wished. Controls Because the study is a laboratory experiment, controls can be put in place to prevent confounding variables affecting the results. It is therefore possible to be more confident that any difference between the results of the males and females is only due to their gender. Controls in this experiment included ensuring that all participants undertook the task in silence. All participants took the test in the same school computer lab and at the same time of day (Between 1:00 and 2:00pm). All participants were of a similar age and all participants did exactly the same task. Participants were seated a desk apart so they could not copy each others answers. Design As there are two groups of different participants, one male and one female, to compare times between groups the research design is an independent groups – each participants is only in one group (condition). Procedure A pilot study was conducted with 5 students not taking part in the study. This enabled the researchers to check the timings involved in administering the mental rotation test and also to check that everything ran smoothly. The study also enabled the researchers to perfect the wording of the standardised instructions. For the main study 10 male participants sat at separate desks in the computer room with the mental rotation programme loaded. Participants read and signed a consent form. The experimenter then read from a standardised set of instructions explaining the procedure and giving permission for participants to begin the 10 mental rotation trails when they were ready. Sitting next to each participant was a research assistant on hand to time the task. In their own time participants began the task – matching a 2D object with one of six other mentally rotated objects. This was completed in silence. After all participants had taken part a full debrief was read out to all participants, explaining the details of the research. All participants were told they could review the findings when the data had been analysed. Results The mean score (measured in seconds) for each participant can be seen below. The mean is one measure of central tendency. If a sensitive value because all scores are taken into however this may cause the value to be skewed if there are outlying values. The mean time to complete each mental rotation trial for males was 5. 84 seconds compared to 7. 73 seconds for females. This means that males completed each on average 1. 89 seconds faster than their female counterparts. This data is represented in a visual form in the graph below which shows an observable difference between males and females. Inferential statistics To test whether there is a significant difference between the sets of scores an inferential statistical test needs to be undertaken. This tests the probability of whether the difference between males and females is due to chance or whether the difference is due to the independent variable. An inferential statistical test is used to test the significance of the results, which will indicate whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. Inferential statistics will indicate the probability that the results are due to chance. If the probability of the results being due to chance is high you cannot reject the null hypothesis and must assume that there is no difference between the spatial ability of males and females. However if the probability that the results are due to chance is very low (say 5% or P lt; 0. 05) you can reject the null hypothesis and therefore accept the experimental hypothesis and thus assume that there is a real significant difference between the spatial abilities of males and females. When doing an inferential statistical test on the data one must select the appropriate test. To do this you must look at: 1) the type of data collected (level of measurement), 2) the research design of the experiment and 3) whether the research is looking for a difference or a relationship (correlation) between sets of data. For this experiment the correct test to use is a Mann-Whitney test because 1) the data gathered is ratio data, 2) the research design is independent groups and 3) we’re looking for a difference between sets of scores for two different groups of participants. The results of our Mann Whitney Test produced a U value of 19. 5. Because this is less than the critical value (23) from the statistical table the results are significant. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the experimental hypothesis is accepted. This means that we have found support for the idea that males do have better spatial ability than females, but it does not prove it. The results are due to a real effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Conclusion One can conclude from the above research that males perform mental rotation tasks more quickly than females. The experimental hypothesis is accepted ‘Males complete mental rotation tasks more quickly than females’. However this conclusion should be considered in light of the issues described below. Issue of Validity The mental rotation is not really a true reflection of how we normally use spatial information in everyday life e. g. when driving, writing and many other everyday activities. As such this experiment may be considered to be low in ecological validity. The test is not a particularly realistic test of spatial ability as the mental rotation task is only looking at one very specific type of spatial ability. Validity may also be questioned because of the controlled, artificial setting used. Participants knew that their performance was being monitored and this may have influenced their behaviour. Males are possibly more competitive when they know they are being watched which may explain why males performed better than females. (There may be more of a social facilitation effect for males compared to females). Other threats to validity may come from demand characteristics i. e. males may respond more to demand characteristics that females or males may respond more to experimenter effects than females. All these alternative explanations as to why males may perform better than females threaten the validity of the study. Reliability Each person who took part in the study had their spatial ability measured using the same test scored in exactly the same way, so the internal reliability (consistency) is good. The findings are externally reliable in the sense that they produced a consistent finding to that of previous research. The fact that the study can be easily replicated, partly because it is a laboratory study, means that the reliability can be tested. Generalisability Only having 10 participants in each group all of whom are between 16 and 18 years of age and from Enfield, is not a broad enough sample to make generalisation about populations beyond the sixth form where the study took place. A larger more representative sample is needed to be able to make more confident generalisations to a wider population. Since all students are studying A-levels they do not represent the academic abilities of all students and hence the sample is not fully representative. Credibility The overall credibility of the experiment may be questioned as the research took place in an artificial setting and the results could have been the result of where and how the experiment was conducted rather than the result of the difference between males and females in terms of spatial ability. Because the experiment may have validity issues plus problems with generalisation caused by the limited and unrepresentative sample many psychologists would argue that the results lack credibility. More evidence may therefore be needed to support the hypothesis that males have better spatial ability than females.